Oak (Quercus spp.)

The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of several hundred species of trees and shrubs in the genus Quercus, and some related genera, notably Cyclobalanopsis and Lithocarpus. Though in Britain, generally refers to the three main species: Pedunculate (Quercus robur), Sessile (Q. petraea) and Turkey (Q. cerris). The genus is native to the northern hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cold latitudes to tropical Asia and the Americas.

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Fagales

Family: Fagaceae

Genus: Quercus

Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with a lobed margin in many species; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with a smooth margin. The flowers are catkins, produced in spring. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6-18 months to mature, depending on species. The "live oaks" (oaks with evergreen leaves) are not a distinct group.

The genus is divided into a number of sections:

Sect. Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles short; acorns mature in 6 months, sweet or slightly bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless. Leaves mostly lack a bristle on lobe tips, which are usually rounded. Sect. Mesobalanus, the Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in 6 months, bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless (closely related to sect. Quercus and sometimes included in it). Sect. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long; acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell hairless. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Sect. Protobalanus, the Canyon live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States and northwest Mexico. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Sect. Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North America, Central America and northern South America. Styles long, acorns mature in 18 months, very bitter, inside of acorn shell woolly. Leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.

Cultivars and hybrids
A number of cultivars are grown in arboreta and in parks and gardens. The most common cultivar is Quercus robur 'Fastigiata', and is the exception among Q. robur cultivars which are generally smaller than the standard tree, growing to between 10-15 m and exhibit unusual leaf or crown shape characteristics.

Quercus robur 'Fastigiata' Cypress Oak, probably the most common cultivated form, it grows to a large imposing tree with a narrow columnar habit. The fastigiate oak was originally propagated from an upright tree that was found in central Europe.

Quercus robur 'Concordia' Golden Oak, a small very slow-growing tree, eventually reaching 10 m, with bright golden-yellow leaves throughout spring and summer. It was originally raised in Van Geert's nursery at Ghent in 1843.

Quercus robur 'Pendula' Weeping Oak, a small to medium sized tree with pendulous branches, reaching up to 15 m.

Quercus robur 'Purpurea' is another cultivar growing to 10 m, but with purple coloured leaves.

Along with the naturally occurring Q. × rosacea, several hybrids with other white oak species have also been produced in cultivation;

Q. × rosacea Bechst. (Q. petraea x Q. robur), a hybrid of the Sessile Oak and English Oak. It is usually of intermediate character between its parents, however it does occasionally exhibit more pronounced characteristics of one or the other parent.

Q. × turnerii Willd. (Q. ilex × Q. robur) (Turner's Oak), a semi-evergreen tree of small to medium size with a rounded crown; it was originally raised at Mr. Turner's nursery, Essex, UK, in 1783. An early specimen is at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muhlenbergii. Hybrids are common in oaks but usually only between species within the same section; no verified inter-section hybrids are known, except between species of sections Quercus and Mesobalanus, where several occur.

The genus Cyclobalanopsis, here treated as a distinct genus following the Flora of China, is often included within Quercus as a distinct subgenus.

The life span of oaks typically ranges from 200 to 600 years, with a few species reaching 1,000 years.

Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) linnaeus

Common Oak, English Oak, Irish Dair,is a large deciduous tree and probably our commonest tree. Usually found in mixed woodland on basic fertile soils with a ph 4.5 - 7.5 including heavy soils. Natural distribution throughout Britain and Ireland and most of Western Europe and Asia Minor with the exception of the far north and some areas of the Mediterranean, and also to parts of North Africa.

It is the type species of the genus (the species by which the oak genus Quercus is defined), and a member of the white oak section, Quercus section Quercus. The populations in Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor and the Caucasus are sometimes treated as separate species, Q. brutia Tenore, Q. pedunculiflora K. Koch and Q. haas Kotschy respectively.

The pedunculate oak is the dominant tree of deciduous woods in Britain, it occurs in coppice woodland, high forest and ancient wood pastureland, and has often been planted in hedgerows. When growing in open areas it has a wide, rounded crown, but woodland specimens are usually tall and slender. It is able to grow in a range of soil types, but prefers those that are fertile and heavy but avoiding acid peat and shallow limestone soils. This oak, known as the 'king of trees' has a special place in the English psyche, and is a well-loved symbol of strength and duration. It is a magnificent tree, with a broad, irregular crown. The bark is grey-brown and fissured, becoming deeply fissured and developing burrs as it ages. The massive main branches often develop low on the trunk and become twisted and gnarled with age. The twigs are moderate, yellow-brown, smooth; brown buds are ovoid-conic, angled, short and round with each scale edged in light brown. The English oak is a deciduous tree, and in the autumn, usually around November, it sheds its leaves.

Popularly supposed to be slow growing, really quite fast, up to 60cm in a year for a few years. Shoot expanded rapidly in a few weeks from late May. In good soil to 20 x 2m by 50 years. Girth increase slowing from 4cm to 2.5cm annually by 250 years, then decreasing.

It is planted for forestry, and produces a long-lasting and durable heartwood, much in demand for interior and furniture work. Young oak trees are vulnerable to insect predation. They grow very quickly, but after reaching 100-200 years of age their rate of growth slows down. After this time, however they continue to increase in girth.

It is a long-lived tree specimens typically live for up to 500 years, but some oaks are known to be 700 to 1200 years old. Indeed, Britain has more ancient oaks than any other country in western Europe. It can grow to a height of 30 - 40 m with a large widespreading head of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are pollarded or coppiced, both pruning techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health. A specimen of notable longevity is one in Stelmuþë, Lithuania which is believed to be approximately 1,500 years old, possibly making it the oldest oak in Europe; another specimen, called the Kongeegen (Kings Oak), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in Jaegerspris, Denmark. Yet another can be found in Sweden, Kvilleken. It is over 1,000 years old and 14 meters around. Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of Ivenack, Germany. Tree-ring research of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years old.

Mature trees can tolerate flooding even by sea-water.

A close relative is the Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea), which shares much of its range. Pedunculate Oak is distinguished from this species by its leaves having only a very short stalk 3–8 mm long, and by its pendunculate acorns. Much more prone to gall-infestation than Sessile Oak. The two often hybridise in the wild, the hybrid being known as Quercus × rosacea.

Oak catkins are Monoecious and made up of small, yellowish-green flowers. The males are slender yellow-green catkins 2 to 3 inches long, in clusters of 2 to 4 in leaf axils. The male flowers hang down on bright green catkins. Near the tip of each twig, on the end of long stalks, are the very small reddish-brown coloured female flowers. The flowers of an oak tree usually emerge in March or April with the leaves following in April with lobed and nearly sessile (very short-stalked) leaves 7–14 cm long. The leaves are alternate, simple, obovate to oblong, 3 to 7 pairs of rounded lobes with sinuses going halfway to midvein, very small ear-lobes at leaf base forming a typical 'wavy-edged' outline, very short petiole, the upper surface is a dark shiny green, the underside is a paler blue-green and by authumn often covered in small discs of spangle-gall. Varying shades of yellow and coppery brown during fisrt growth from May, then red young leaves during second growth in July. Young leaves are often covered in a layer of fine downy hairs.

Their fruit, called acorns, appear after the female flowers are fertilized in spring and ripen by October of the same year. The acorns occur in clusters on long stalks known as peduncles, 3–7 cm long (hence the common name of this species) and are 2–2.5 cm long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk) with one to four acorns on each peduncle. The egg-shaped acorns sit in scaly cups that measure up to 18mm across and covering approximatly one third of the acorn. They are typically brown, tan, yellow, light green, deep green or grayish green. Oaks grow slowly and usually do not bear acorns until they are about 20 years old. Acorns require stratification to stimulate sprouting. Most white oaks need immediate stratification. The acorns are rich in starch and tannins, and are eaten by small mammals and a number of birds. Jays Garrulus glandarius and squirrels are extremely important in dispersing acorns away from the parent trees; they bury them for later consumption, and many of these acorns germinate.

Acorns were once widely used to feed pigs; they were also ground down to make a substitute for coffee and even a type of bread. A good crop of acorns was used to predict a good harvest, and a heavy fall of acorns was thought to signal an impending harsh winter.

Within its native range it is valued for its importance to insects and other wildlife. Numerous insects live on the leaves, buds, and in the acorns. The oak tree can be home to more than 300 species of invertebrates. The acorns form a valuable food resource for several small mammals and some birds.

Upland oak woodlands have declined by 30-40% over the last 60 years as a result of re-planting with conifers, conversion to grazing land, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and unsuitable management. The decline in the ancient technique of coppicing has resulted in oak woodlands becoming more shaded; acorns do not germinate as well in these conditions. Many oak forests have a skewed age structure, as young trees are not able to regenerate. This may cause problems for many of the rare species that are dependent on ancient oaks; as the old trees die there will not be trees in the vicinity of a suitable age, so entire communities are at risk.

Upland oak woodland is a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP). An action plan has been produced to guide the conservation of this habitat. Not only is the English oak of important cultural significance, it is a beautiful, majestic species. Furthermore, the communities of plants, animals and fungi that are associated with oak trees are often unique, and internationally significant. Conserving this 'king of trees' is therefore of utmost importance.

Diseases and pests

Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum)

Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould infection which afflicts some oak species and some other trees and shrubs, causing them to die rapidly, it can kill oaks within just a few weeks. It also causes a non-fatal leaf disease in many other plants such as rhododendrons. There is no known cure but new studies show that periodic wildfires help protect against the mould.</p><p>It was first discovered in California in 1995 when large numbers of Tanoaks (Lithocarpus densiflorus) died mysteriously, and was described as a new species of Phytophthora in 2000. It has subsequently been found in many other areas including Britain, Germany, and some other American states, either accidentally introduced on nursery stock, or already present undetected. The origin of the disease remains unknown, although it was reported infecting European nursery rhododendrons and viburnum in 1993. In tan oaks, the disease may be recognized by wilting new shoots, older leaves becoming pale green, and after a period of two to three weeks, foliage turns brown while clinging to the branches. Dark brown

sap may stain the lower trunk's bark. Bark may split and exude gum, with visible discoloration. After the tree dies, suckers will sprout next year, but their tips soon bend and die. Ambrosia beetles (Monarthrum scutellare) will most likely infest a dying tree during midsummer, producing piles of fine white dust near tiny holes. Later, bark beetles (Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis) produce fine red boring dust. Small black domes, the fruiting bodies of the Hypoxylon fungus, may also be present on the bark. Leaf death may occur more than a year after the initial infection and months after the tree has been girdled by beetles.

Promoting tree health may help prevent disease and insect infestations. Make certain roots and soil remain undisturbed, prune dead and dying branches out, and landscape below oaks with mulch or drought-tolerant plants. When a tree dies, experts recommend cutting it down and grinding down the stump. Firewood should be covered with 6 mil plastic, sealed at the edges with dirt or rocks, for six months to prevent beetle emergence.

In addition to oaks, many other forest species may be host for the disease, including rhododendron, Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula) and Shreve's Oak (Quercus parvula v. shrevei). Disease progression on these species is not well documented but hikers have observed dead Douglas Firs with massive quantities of red frass surrounding their base. Redwoods exhibit needle discoloration and cankers on small branches, with purple lesions on sprouts that may lead to sprout mortality.

Oak wilt (Ceratocystis fagacearum) is a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but generally live longer), caused by a fungal disease, Ceratocystis fagacearum (a fungus closely related to Dutch Elm Disease, which can quickly kill an oak tree. The fungus originated in eastern Russia. The tree reacts to the presence of the fungus by plugging its own cambial tissue in an attempt to block the fungus from spreading further. As the area around cambium (the vascular tissue) is crucial for delivering nutrients and water to the rest of the plant, this plug prevents them from travelling up the trunk of the tree, eventually killing it.

Oak wilt spreads in two basic ways. A transmission via root graft is the most common source of infection, as trees within as much as 15 m (50 feet) of an infected tree can be infected. The second method of infection is via sap beetles. These beetles are attracted to the bleeding sap of the oak tree, as well as the fungus in an infected or dead tree, and so can transfer the disease to healthy but injured trees. This is less common as trees are rarely infected this way unless injured, but it is the only way to jump barriers (rivers, for example) and infect trees in new areas.</p>

<p>Oak wilt is identifiable by the rapid pattern of wilting starting from the top of the tree and progressively dying down to the bottom, and on specific leaves, wilting from the edges to the base. Oak with oak wilt stand out with their dead crown compared to a green canopy in the summer, so much so that oak wilt infections can be spotted from the air. A new infection via beetles instead of root grafts can kill a tree somewhat more slowly, if a branch is infected instead of the trunk.

Oak wilt affects all oak species, but has somewhat different effects on different groups. Red Oaks such as the Northern red oak are particularly susceptible, and when infected, generally die over the course of a single summer. White oaks are more resistant, and can live for several years after infection, losing a few branches each season (from the top down). White oaks in particular are resistant. Some types of white oak, such as bur oak are more susceptible, although still not as much as red oaks.

Although possible, it is rare for oak wilt to jump between oaks of different species via root grafting. Different species do not graft often, and so contaminate each other less frequently.

Although similar to Dutch Elm Disease, Oak wilt is more controllable. Prevention is key, as there is no permanent cure. To prevent beetle transmission, oaks should never be pruned in the spring months. Late autumn and early winter are preferable. Also, care should be taken to prevent injury during this period, particularly during construction. If a tree is injured through a storm or accident in the spring, tree paint to cover the wound is advised, although it is not a good idea in general. Reducing the source of infection is also helpful. Dead oaks should be checked for fungal mats in the spring, and if present, all wood should be chipped, burned, or covered in plastic. Logs from wilted trees should never be moved to unaffected areas, even for firewood.

If a tree is discovered to be infected, a trench (or better yet, two at different distances) should be dug between the it and any other trees of its species to prevent root graft disease transmission. This will sever any root grafts that could carry the disease to neighbouring trees. The placement of these root cuts depends on size of trees, soil type, timing, topography, etc., and usually needs professional experience, but in general should be about 40 feet and one healthy tree away from the sick tree to be effective. Root cutting is most efficiently done in most cases with a machine called a vibratory cable plow that uses a solid steel blade cutting to a depth of 5 feet. Injections of propiconazole can help to prevent transmission as well. Injections every other year can also be used to treat a white oak, if it is not yet greatly affected, although this is expensive. An infected tree should not be immediately cut down, as this can force the oak wilt down into the roots to affect other trees, and can also injure nearby trees and make them more susceptible to beetle transmission. The tree should be cut down the following autumn, and debarked, chipped, burned, or covered in plastic by the next spring to prevent contamination by fungal mats.

Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often only being discovered when the trees come down in a strong gale.

Feeding and other inter-species relationships associated with Quercus robur:

Leaf

leaf (upper superficial layer) is mined by larva Profenusa pygmaea - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Periclista albida - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Periclista lineolata - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Periclista pubescens - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Periclista lineolata - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Periclista pubescens - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf (upperside) leaf (upperside) is grazed by larva Harpiphorus lepidus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf litter (dead) dead leaf litter is associate of imago Trachodes hispidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
leaf is galled by larva Macrodiplosis dryobia - a gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

leaf is galled by larva Macrodiplosis volvens - a gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Andricus curvator - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Andricus ostreus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Andricus quadrilineatus - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Andricus quercusradicis - Truffle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Andricus testaceipes - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Cynips agama - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Cynips disticha - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Cynips divisa - Red Currant Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Cynips longiventris - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Cynips quercusfolii - Cherry Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus albipes - Smooth Spangle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Neuroterus albipes - Smooth Spangle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus numismalis - Silk Button Spangle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Neuroterus numismalis - Silk Button Spangle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Neuroterus quercusbaccarum - Common Spangle And Currant Galls (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus quercusbaccarum - Common Spangle And Currant Galls (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is galled by agamic larva Neuroterus tricolor - Cupped Spangle (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
leaf is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus tricolor - Cupped Spangle (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
leaf is galled by agamic larva Trigonaspis megaptera - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Arge rustica - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Argiidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Allantus togatus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Apethymus abdominalis - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Apethymus braccatus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf is grazed by larva Caliroa annulipes - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) [skeletonises the leaf, leaving one cuticle intact]
leaf is grazed by larva Caliroa cerasi - Pear And Cherry Slug Sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) [skeletonises the leaf, leaving one cuticle intact]
leaf is grazed by larva Caliroa cinxia - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) [skeletonises the leaf, leaving one cuticle intact]
leaf is grazed by larva Caliroa varipes - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) [skeletonises the leaf, leaving one cuticle intact]
leaf is grazed by larva Mesoneura opaca - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
leaf may have rolled larva Attelabus nitens - Oak Leaf-roller (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)
leaf may have rolled larva Neurotoma mandibularis - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Pamphiliidae) [larvae in pairs]
leaf may have rolled larva Pamphilius sylvarum - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Pamphiliidae)
leaf is food plant of larva Cryptocephalus labiatus - a leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
leaf is food plant of imago Cryptocephalus labiatus - a leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
leaf is food plant of larva Cryptocephalus querceti - a leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
leaf is food plant of imago Cryptocephalus querceti - a leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Canopy

canopy is associate of imago Acalles roboris - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Aphid infestation

aphid-infested is associate of larva Melangyna cincta - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
aphid-infested is associate of larva Meliscaeva cinctella - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)

Dead Leaf and leaf litter

dead, fallen leaf is associate of imago Acalles roboris - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
leaf-litter, detritus may contain larva Fannia umbrosa - a lesser house fly (Diptera: Fanniidae)

Galls

is galled by Asterolecanium quercicola (Homoptera: Coccidae)
is galled by agamic larva Andricus testaceipes - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Foodplant of

is food plant of larva Rhynchites interpunctatus - a leafroller weevil (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)

<li> is food plant of Polydrusus cervinus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Polydrusus flavipes - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Polydrusus mollis - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Polydrusus pterygomalis - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Polydrusus splendidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Polydrusus tereticollis - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Phyllobius argentatus - Silver-green Leaf Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Phyllobius glaucus - a leaf weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
<li> is food plant of Phyllobius pyri - Common Leaf Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Male Catkin

male catkin male catkin is galled by sexual larva Andricus fecundator - Artichoke Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) ra: Tenthredinidae)
male catkin male catkin is galled by sexual larva Andricus fecundator - Artichoke Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
male catkin is galled by agamic larva Andricus quadrilineatus - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
male catkin is galled by sexual larva Andricus quercusramuli - Cottonwool Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
male catkin is galled by agamic larva Andricus seminationis - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
male catkin is galled by sexual larva Andricus solitarius - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
male catkin is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus albipes - Smooth Spangle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
male catkin is galled by agamic larva Neuroterus aprilinus - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
male catkin is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus quercusbaccarum - Common Spangle And Currant Galls (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Bud

bud (partially severed) partially severed bud may contain larva Rhynchites aeneovirens - a leafroller weevil (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus albopunctatus - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus callidoma - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus corruptrix - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus fecundator - Artichoke Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus glanduli (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus inflator (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus kollari - Oak Marble Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus lignicola - Cola-nut Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by sexual larva Andricus lignicola - Cola-nut Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus quercusramuli - Cottonwool Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bud is galled by agamic larva Andricus solitarius - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by sexual larva Biorhiza pallida - Oak Apple Gall-wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by sexual larva Callirhytis bella - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by sexual larva Cynips divisa - Red Currant Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by agamic larva Cynips longiventris - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by sexual larva Neuroterus aprilinus - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,
bud is galled by sexual larva Trigonaspis megaptera - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Stubbs,

Shoot

shoot (decaying) may contain larva Rhynchites germanicus - Strawberry Rhynchites (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)

Cupule

cupule is galled by agamic larva Andricus quercuscalicis - Knopper Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Twig

one year old twig may contain larva Rhynchites olivaceus - a leafroller weevil (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)
dead twig, small branch may contain larva Magdalis cerasi - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
twig is galled by sexual larva Andricus curvator - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
twig is galled by sexual larva Andricus inflator (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
twig may contain larva Janus femoratus - Wood Borer Sawfly (Hymenoptera: Cephidae)
twig is food plant of larva Rhynchites cavifrons - a leafroller weevil (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)
dead twig? may contain Acalles ptinoides - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
twig (old) may contain larva Trachodes hispidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Bullock, J.A., 1992
dead twigs is food plant of Acalles roboris - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
branch (dead) dead branch is associate of imago Tropideres sepicola - a fungus weevil (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)
faggot (dead) dead faggot is associate of imago Trachodes hispidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Stem

stem is galled by Asterolecanium variolosum (Homoptera: Coccidae)

Sap run

sap run (Cossus-infested) Cossus-infested sap run is associate of larva Ferdinandea cuprea - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
sap run is decayed by larva Ferdinandea - a genus of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae)
sap run is decayed by larva Brachyopa bicolor - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
sap run is decayed by larva Brachyopa insensilis - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
sap run is decayed by larva Brachyopa pilosa - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae) [southern England]
sap run is decayed by larva Psilota anthracina - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
sap run is associate of larva Volucella inflata - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)

bark

bark (<1m up), sapling (especially) bark (<1m up) of sapling (especially)
bark (at trunk base) is galled by agamic larva Andricus quercusradicis - Truffle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bark (esp wounded) esp wounded bark is galled by agamic larva Andricus quercuscorticis - a gall wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
bark (under dead) under dead bark is associate of imago Trachodes hispidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
bark (under very wet) under very wet bark is decayed by larva Sphegina - a genus of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of Cerylon fagi - a cerylonid beetle (Coleoptera: Cerylonidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of Cerylon ferrugineum - a cerylonid beetle (Coleoptera: Cerylonidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of Cerylon histeroides - a cerylonid beetle (Coleoptera: Cerylonidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of larva Pyrochroa coccinea - Black-headed Cardinal Beetle (Coleoptera: Pyrochroidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of larva Pyrochroa serraticornis - Red-headed Cardinal Beetle (Coleoptera: Pyrochroidae)
bark (under) under bark is associate of Paromalus flavicornis - a carrion beetle (Coleoptera: Histeridae)
bark, recent stump (under) under bark of recent stump is decayed by larva Brachyopa pilosa - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
bark may house hibernating naked prepupa Allantus togatus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Cambium

cambium may contain larva Dryocoetinus villosus - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Ernoporus fagi - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Scolytus intricatus - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Taphrorychus bicolor - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Xyleborus dispar - an ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Xyleborus dryographus - an ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Xyleborus saxeseni - an ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Xyloterus domesticus - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)
cambium may contain larva Xyloterus signatus - a bark or ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

Wood

wood may contain larva Platypus cylindrus - Oak Pin-hole Borer (Coleoptera: Platypodidae)
wood may contain larva Anitys rubens - a wood boring beetle (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
wood may contain larva Gastrallus immarginatus - a wood boring beetle (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
wood may contain larva Hadrobregmus denticollis - a wood boring beetle (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
wood may contain larva Xestobium rufovillosum - Death Watch Beetle (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
wood may contain larva Xyletinus longitarsis - a wood boring beetle (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
wood may contain larva Agrilus angustulus - a jewel beetle (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)
wood may contain larva Agrilus laticornis - a jewel beetle (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)
wood may contain larva Agrilus pannonicus - Oak Jewel Beetle (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)
wood may contain larva Agrilus viridis - a jewel beetle (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) [on stunted/damaged trees]
wood may contain larva Ampedus balteatus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus cardinalis - Cardinal Click Beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus cinnabarinus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus elongantulus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus nigerrimus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus quercicola - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus ruficeps - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ampedus rufipennis - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Ischnodes sanguinicollis - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Lacon querceus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Procraerus tibialis - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Selatosomus bipustulatus - a click beetle (Coleoptera: Elateridae)
wood may contain larva Prionychus ater - a darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
wood may contain larva Acmaeops collaris - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Leiopus nebulosus - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Mesosa nebulosa - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Phymatodes alni - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Phymatodes testaceus - Tanbark Borer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Pogonocherus hispidulus - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Prionus coriarius - Sawyer Beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Pyrrhidium sanguineum - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Rhagium mordax - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Trinophyllum cribratum - a longhorn beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
wood may contain larva Tremex columba - a woodwasp (Hymenoptera: Siricidae)

Dead Wood

dead or rotten wood may contain larva Lucanus cervus - Stag Beetle (Coleoptera: Lucanidae)
dead wood may contain larva Tropideres sepicola - a fungus weevil (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)
dead wood may contain Cossonus parallelepipedus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
dead wood is food plant of Rhopalomesites tardyi - Holly Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
dead wood is associate of imago Trachodes hispidus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
dead, esp hollow wood may contain Phloeophagus lignarius - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
dead, rotten wood may contain larva Dryophthorus corticalis - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
decaying wood may contain larva Platystomos albinus - a fungus weevil (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)
rotten wood may house hibernating naked prepupa Allantus togatus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
wet, decaying wood is associate of Plegaderus dissectus - a carrion beetle (Coleoptera: Histeridae)
wood mould of stump may contain larva Gnorimus variabilis - a chafer (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
stump (rotten) may house puparium Fannia postica - a lesser house fly (Diptera: Fanniidae)

Rot Hole

rot hole is decayed by larva Blera fallax - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
rot hole is decayed by larva Xylota xanthocnema - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
rot hole is associate of larva Myolepta luteola - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)
rot hole is associate of larva Brachypalpus laphriformis - a hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae)

Root

root is galled by Andricus quercusradicis - Truffle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
root is galled by agamic larva Andricus quercusradicis - Truffle Gall (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
root is galled by Biorhiza pallida - Oak Apple Gall-wasp (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Associated with

is associate of Calosoma inquisitor - Caterpillar-hunter (Coleoptera: Carabidae)
is associate of Aderus oculatus - an aderid beetle (Coleoptera: Aderidae)
is associate of Aderus populneus - an aderid beetle (Coleoptera: Aderidae)
is associate of Abdera biflexuosa - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Abdera quadrifasciata - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Hypulus quercinus - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Melandrya barbata - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Melandrya caraboides - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Phloiotrya vaudoueri - a false darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Melandryidae)
is associate of Hypebaeus flavipes - Moccas Beetle (Coleoptera: Melyridae)
is associate of Sphinginus lobatus - a malachite beetle (Coleoptera: Melyridae)
is associate of Scymnus auritus - a ladybird (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)
is associate of Tropideres niveirostris - a fungus weevil (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)
is associate of imago Rhynchites caeruleus - Apple Twig Cutter, Twig Cutting Weevil (Coleoptera: Attelabidae)
is associate of Coeliodes dryados - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Coeliodes erythroleucos - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Coeliodes ruber - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Curculio glandium - Acorn Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Curculio pyrrhoceras - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Curculio venosus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Curculio villosus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of imago Dorytomus affinis - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Rhynchaenus avellanae - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Rhynchaenus pilosus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Rhynchaenus quercus - a weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
is associate of Dirhagus pygmaeus - a false click beetle (Coleoptera: Eucnemidae)
is associate of Hylecoetus dermestoides - a timber beetle (Coleoptera: Lymexylidae)
is associate of Lymexylon navale - a timber beetle (Coleoptera: Lymexylidae)
is associate of Corticeus unicolor - a darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
is associate of Mycetochara humeralis - a darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
is associate of Pseudocistela ceramboides - a darkling beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Hibernating

may house hibernating ovum Apethymus abdominalis - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
may house hibernating ovum Apethymus braccatus - a sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Photo Album on Flickr